In print

Collapse: How societies choose to fail or survive

By Jared Diamond
Published by Penguin
Website: www.penguin.com
2005, 592pp, ISBN 0 713 992867, £20

A student once asked Professor Jared Diamond, "What did the Easter Islander who cut down the last palm tree say as he was doing it?" Diamond has since published a wide-ranging and readable book that aims to explain such seemingly suicidal destruction and prevent its recurrence.

Beyond the iconic cases of Easter Island, the Anasazi of the American southwest and the Maya of Central America, Diamond examines collapse on the Polynesian islands of Pitcairn (pre-Bounty mutineers) and Henderson following the cessation of trade with larger but environmentally degraded Mangareva. He contrasts these failures to the successes of other Pacific peoples, notably highland New Guineans and Tikopia Islanders who devised bottom-up strategies for conserving forests and soils, and Tokugawa Japanese who reformed forest management top-down.

Especially fascinating is Diamond's comparison of enduring Norse settlement of the Orkneys, Shetlands, Faeroes and Iceland with the collapse of Norse Greenland. "While we think of Vikings as raiders and seafarers, they thought of themselves as farmers," he writes. Norse society in Greenland "survived for 450 years as Europe's most remote outpost" but finally succumbed to five factors Diamond identifies as broadly applicable to other cases. Climate change initially brought mild weather that seduced Norse colonists into recreating the life they had known in southern Norway, but later reverted to stunting cold, which further formed ice floes blocking Greenland's shipping lanes to friendly trade partners in Europe. Severe environmental damage arose from wasteful logging, excessive grazing and "flaying the outfield" for turf to use as fuel and building material. Casually murdering skraelings (or "wretches" as the Norse called all Native American groups they encountered) turned Inuits into hostile neighbours. European chauvinism also prevented Norse adoption of such obviously successful Inuit livelihood strategies as seal hunting and fishing, and so fatally constrained Norse society's responses to environmental problems.

Diamond draws parallels between Greenland and Australia, where settlers' attempts to create another England wrought environmental havoc. The perversely deliberate introduction into Australia of foxes and rabbits is well known, but few realise that rabbits were successfully established only on the fifth attempt. Characteristically, Diamond is "cautiously optimistic" about Australia: "The Australian environment is exceptionally fragile, the most fragile of any First World country except perhaps Iceland…[but] Australians are beginning to think radically about the central question: which of our traditional core values can we retain, and which ones instead no longer serve us well in today's world?"

Diamond explores the mine-scarred American state of Montana, genocidal Rwanda, desperate Haiti cheek-by-jowl on Hispaniola with the hopeful Dominican Republic, and the "lurching giant" of China. Finally, he considers the practical lessons offered by these case studies (inexplicably burying options for personal action in the final pages of Further Readings). Diamond's lessons will gratify readers weary of pat answers and ready blame.

What did the Easter Islander who cut down the last palm tree say as he was doing it? Because of "landscape amnesia", probably nothing. "Gradually, Easter Island's trees became fewer, smaller and less important," Diamond supposes. "At the time that the last fruit-bearing adult palm tree was cut, the species had long ago ceased to be of any economic significance."

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Vital signs 2005: The trends that are shaping our future

Edited by Linda Starke
Published by The Worldwatch Institute/WW Norton
Websites: www.worldwatch.org, www.wwnorton.com
2005, 139pp, ISBN 0 393 32689 6(Pb), US$16.95

In compiling this collection of two-page snapshots to illustrate important trends in six sectors of human activity (food production, energy and climate, economic growth, transportation, health and social trends, and conflict), one key editorial decision must have been the balance between presenting data and drawing implications from it. The emphasis in this volume is definitely on the former, with the reader often left to draw his or her own conclusions and at times this lack of commentary is disappointing. Details of the building and closing of nuclear power stations, for example, are provided, but there is no discussion of why the pattern is the way it is, or how the current trend might impact on, say, the environment. Similarly when documenting the growth in biofuel production and use: ethanol from sugarcane now accounts for 30-40 per cent of Brazil's auto fuel, the EU 'hopes' that biofuel can provide 20 per cent of its fuel market by 2020. Will a future edition of Vital Signs be documenting rates of land degradation from unsustainable production of fuel crops?

The impact of Chinese economic growth is a recurring theme of this year's Vital Signs, with repercussions in numerous sectors. Interesting in this context is a reported plan of the Chinese government to incorporate environmental costs into its planning, by adopting over the next five years, a 'Green GDP' measure that subtracts resource depletion and pollution costs from GDP. When an American organisation, Redefining Progress, reviewed economic growth in the US between 1982 and 2002 using a similar approach, it found that while traditionally measured GDP rose 56 per cent per capita, its own GPI (genuine progress indicator) figure was much lower, just 2 per cent. The GPI figure adds ignored sectors like unpaid child care, but subtracts uncounted economic costs such as pollution and crime. If the Chinese are serious about their Green GDP plan, it could, the authors suggest, help to put the country on a more sustainable economic path, and put the onus on other countries to rethink how they assess economic development. The kind of interesting commentary that this year's Vital Signs deserves to have more of.

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Animal welfare: Limping towards Eden

By John Webster
Published by Blackwell Publishing
Website: www.blackwellpublishing.com
2005, 296pp, ISBN 1405118776 (Pb), £24.99

The UK-based Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) launched in 1994 its Freedom Food quality assurance scheme with animal welfare at its heart. John Webster was among a team of experts asked to audit participating farms and find out whether adhering to recommended requirements really improved animal welfare. He describes one of the welfare problems that was common on many audited farms: lameness in dairy cows. What proved interesting in the study was huge divergence between the occurrence of lameness and farmers' perception of it. Apparently, farmers were so used to seeing cows walking in discomfort that they came to view it as normal. Improving animal welfare could therefore be achieved only by improving farmers' ability to detect problems. The team also realised that simply ticking hundreds of boxes to confirm adherence to various welfare-ensuring requirements failed to achieve the intended benefits to animal health and contentedness. They therefore recommended refinements to the standards so that particular welfare problems (which, Webster makes clear, can occur on any farm and not necessarily through cruelty or negligence) can be picked up and addressed with veterinary assistance.

In following up his earlier Animal welfare: A cool eye towards Eden, Webster provides helpful coverage of a difficult and controversial subject. As the World Organisation for Animal Health's recent agreement of welfare standards for animal transportation suggest, responding to welfare concerns is a growing priority, and not only in developed countries. In developing a framework to define and evaluate animal welfare, Webster acknowledges that welfare is just one factor among many that influence how we use and treat animals. He offers guidelines on the development of protocols to assess welfare standards and address problems, and makes recommendations for an education policy that can increase awareness and promote action to reduce suffering. There are chapters on industrialised farming of pigs and poultry, on cattle and other ruminants, and on handling, transport and slaughter. Issues relating to the use of animals in science, sport and as pets are also addressed. Webster is undoubtedly at the forefront of his field, and his book deserves high recognition and praise.

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Technical guidelines for the management of field and in vitro germplasm collections

By Reed, Engelmann, Dulloo and Engels
Published by IPGRI
Website: www.ipgri.cgiar.org
Available from www.earthprint.com
Free PDF download www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications
2004, 106pp, ISBN 92-9043-640-9(Pb), US$30

Maintaining plant species in field-based collections, as opposed to seed stores, is expensive and carries a high risk of loss. The establishment of such collections, introduction of new plant species, and general maintenance of plant health, therefore need to be carried out in both a scientifically sound and cost-effective manner. This demands a high level of skill, knowledge and judgement - qualities to be found in experienced curators, but not easily passed on to a wider audience. This publication from the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute attempts to bridge that communication gap, documenting the basic principles and techniques for germplasm collection establishment and maintenance. It covers both field and in vitro procedures, the latter becoming increasingly available as a means of conserving plants normally conserved in the field. Some useful appendices offer examples of plant distribution procedures for plant germplasm, protocols for plant tissue culture and details of antibiotic treatments for in vitro cultures.

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Participatory livestock research: A guide

By Czech Conroy
Published by ITDG
Website: www.developmentbookshop.com
2005, 320pp, ISBN 1 85339 577 3(Pb), £16.95

Participatory research, with farmers and scientists working together to assess problems and test new technologies, has become a fairly well-established part of crop development in recent years. Participatory plant breeding programmes, for example, have produced new varieties that have been adopted by official seed supply programmes in India. Doing the same for livestock research, however, raises new challenges - not least, that potentially putting an animal's health at risk through some experimentation process is not quite the same as testing a new pest management technique or irrigation regime in a field of rice. But the need for livestock development, whether in achieving better health, productivity or labour output, is vital for millions of the world's poorest, and 'traditional' methods of research, based on developed world production models, have proved largely irrelevant for the vast majority of livestock producers in the South.

The challenges of participatory livestock research are manifold. Developing hypotheses that are meaningful to farmers and researchers, and designing statistically useful experiments that yield enough data, but not too much, are just two factors that are likely to need careful thought. Case studies in this guide make it clear that researchers need to be very flexible, in order to accommodate the priorities of participating farmers, and that they should support innovations that are cheap, easy to apply and based on local traditions. The guide is divided into three parts. The first covers the processes of participatory situation analysis, with separate chapters devoted to getting an overview of livestock keeping, feeding systems and animal health, and analysis of constraints and opportunities. The second part looks at participatory technology development, including the design, monitoring and evaluation of trials and achieving wider impact. The third section consists of case studies from Africa, Asia and Latin America, many of which conclude with lessons learned about the participatory process. The book is sure to become a standard reference for livestock researchers working in the developing world.

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The African food crisis: Lessons from the Asian Green Revolution

Edited by Djurfeldt et al.
Published by CABI Publishing
Website: www.cabi-publishing.org/bookshop
2005, 288pp, ISBN 0 85199 998 0(Hb), £55

In the 1950s and 60s, warnings of ongoing, unavoidable famine and poverty were being applied to Asian countries in much the same language that sub-Saharan Africa is spoken of today. How were Asian countries able to confound the predictions, and what lessons does this offer? It might be assumed that such a question would inevitably revolve around the transferability, or otherwise, of Asian green revolution technologies. This book, however, has a very different basis for comparing the two continents. Rather than a narrow, technology-centred definition, the editors offer a broader understanding of the green revolution as a 'state-driven, market-mediated and small farmer-based strategy to increase national self-sufficiency in food grains.' A volatile world grain market, combined with the real threat of famine, drove Asian governments to develop their national food-grain commodity chains. Markets played a fundamental role in different parts of the chain with regard to farm inputs and trade and processing of grain. And small farm production, rather than large-scale mechanised systems, were the dominant medium of agricultural development.

Case studies from seven Asian countries are used to elaborate this model. This is followed by several comparative studies across eight African countries looking at, for example, intensification, the role of the state, market institutions and the effect of Structural Adjustment programmes. Country-specific case studies include the story of the stalled maize revolution in Kenya and the experience of agricultural intensification in Tanzania. The book ends with a discussion of policy implications, arguing that well-functioning markets are necessary but not sufficient for a revolution in African agricultural productivity, and criticising both the anti-state bias of the development community, and the anti-small farmer bias of many African agricultural policies. Drawing on three years of research by African and Asian specialists, involving study of secondary data, interviews with key individuals, and questioning of over 3000 households in more than 100 villages, this is an important study deserving critical attention from the agricultural development community.

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The pesticide detox: Towards a more sustainable agriculture

Edited by Jules Pretty
Published by Earthscan
Website: www.earthscan.co.uk
2005, 317pp, ISBN 1 84407 142 1(Pb), £22.95

The growth in Integrated Pest Management, particularly through Farmer Field Schools, has demonstrated that current levels of pesticide use, often established in the first instance by government subsidy, are in many cases both unnecessary and even counter-productive. With contributions from, among many others, David Dent, Head of CABI Bioscience, and Barbara Dinham of the Pesticide Action Network, The Pesticide Detox offers both broad and in depth treatment of the case against synthetic pesticides. Evidence highlighting the hazards and the alternatives are drawn from both developed and developing world, covering issues such as human and environmental health, the 'true' costs incurred by inappropriate pesticide usage, and current policies and trends.

Use of non-chemical means of pest control have already proved themselves within certain, sometimes niche, production systems. Organic banana production in the Dominican Republic is just one of the examples quoted in this book, which by tapping into a high value market has given more than 2500 farmers a much improved income. However, this has only been possible through imparting a high level of knowledge about organic production and market requirements to those farmers, and for this kind of approach to be implemented on a wider scale would need not only substantial political backing, but also much greater consumer awareness. A book such as this may receive approval from the converted, but for alternative pest-management techniques to become mainstream remains a daunting challenge.

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Supply chain and liberalisation of the milk industry in Uganda

By Pamela Mbabazi
Published by Fountain Publishers
Distributed by Africa Books Collective
Website: www.africanbookscollective.com
2005, 144pp, ISBN 9970024949 (Pb), £9.95/US$24.95

The last ten years have seen a major rise and fall in the fortunes of Uganda's milk industry. Economic liberalisation initially brought high milk prices and improved employment opportunities, principally because of the introduction of modern processing technology such as UHT processing plants. However, the boom was not sustainable, with the result that large quantities of milk produced were neither purchased nor processed, and some processing plants were forced to close. High input prices, insufficient demand for milk in and outside the country, lack of capital, and lack of regulation are just a few of the major problems that continue to hamper the industry.

This publication traces the development of the milk industry in Uganda from independence to the present, focussing particularly on Ankole district in the south west of the country. It reviews the impact of liberalisation and the bottlenecks affecting farmers, buyers and processors, ending with a number of recommendations. Mbabazi suggests the industry would do well to learn from the 'Anand' milk production pattern developed in India. Under this system farmers are joined in village-level co-operatives which offer a wide range of supports - training, lower cost inputs, cooling facilities etc. and are in turn linked to larger farmer unions and metropolitan dairies. But, she writes, 'the free market, as an engine of growth for such a young and fragile industry, is a fallacy,' and without considerable support, protection and regulation from government, as well as non-government investment, Uganda's milk industry will continue to underachieve.

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A farmers' jury: The future of smallholder agriculture in Zimbabwe

By Coupe, Hellin, Masendeke and Rusike
Published by ITDG
Website: www.itdgpublishing.org.uk/
2005, 60pp, ISBN 1 85339 576 5(Pb), £12.95

Creating a forum for Zimbabwean farmers to challenge senior officials on their vision of the future of smallholder agriculture might seem like asking for trouble. In fact the week long meetings, held in February 2003, passed off without incident - in large part, perhaps, because they were not announced to either local or international media. Surprising to those who facilitated the process was the boldness and acuteness of the farmers, who felt comfortable in cross-examining the various expert witnesses, and proved very competent in assimilating and responding to the information they were given. This working paper from ITDG offers a short description of the process, and a selection of the issues discussed, including land reform, HIV/AIDS, genetically modified crops, and the role of the Zimbabwean Farmers Union. It ends with a series of verdicts given by the farmers' jury on the future development of agriculture in the country, a subject on which they appear to have had more developed opinions that most of the experts. Unfortunately the actual deliberations and discussions of the jury are only given very scant coverage, but of the process for increasing grassroots participation in policy development, it offers a useful case study.

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Managing agrodiversity the traditional way: Lessons from West Africa in sustainable use of biodiversity and related natural resources

Edited by Edwin A Gyasi et al.
Published by United Nations University Press
Email: sales@hq.unu.edu
Website: www.unu.edu
2004, 293pp, ISBN 92 808 1098 7 (Pb), US$32

This volume is drawn from nearly 10 years of participatory research in West Africa under the United Nations University PLEC project (People, Land Management and Environmental Change). The bulk of the book consists of case studies from Ghana that illustrate how farming communities are preserving the diversity of their planted crops through their traditional cultivation and land management methods. For the farmers, maintaining the diversity of crop varieties is often linked to a complex web of socio-cultural beliefs and practices, with different varieties of yam, for example, being used for different culinary purposes, as well as having various ceremonial roles in seasonal festivals. Correspondingly for researchers and crop breeders, preserving the range of characteristics embodied in diversity is essential for the future development of varieties that can meet new needs and challenges. As the studies in this volume make clear, in many cases that diversity is under threat, and closer links are needed between the scientific and farming communities if preservation efforts are to succeed. Targeted strongly at the research community, the book offers a useful record of the work of the PLEC, and will be of particular interest to those working with farming communities in Ghana.

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